Английская Википедия:Election of Uthman

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Шаблон:Short descriptionШаблон:Uthman

Шаблон:Infobox historical event

The Election of Uthman refers to the appointment of Uthman ibn Affan as the third caliph by a committee ([[Shura|Шаблон:Transliteration]]), which was assembled by the dying caliph Umar in 23 AH (643-4 CE). The committee likely consisted of six early Muslims from the Quraysh tribe, including the prophet Muhammad's second cousin and son-in-law Uthman and Muhammad's first cousin and son-in-law Ali ibn Abi Talib. The deciding vote was given to Uthman's brother-in-law Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf, who appointed the former as the next caliph after the deliberations stalled. The choice of the wealthy Uthman is often explained as intended to guard the interests of the Quraysh and to follow the practices of the first two caliphs, namely, Abu Bakr and Umar. The committee has been criticized for its bias towards Uthman and for its exclusion of the Ansar.

Committee

The committee was convened in Medina by the second caliph Umar (Шаблон:Reign) after he was stabbed in 23/644 by Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz, a Persian slave.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn On his deathbed, Umar tasked the committee with choosing the next caliph among themselves.Шаблон:Sfn This committee is also often referred to as a Шаблон:Transliteration or electorate body by Sunni theologians.Шаблон:Sfn Early Sunni sources unanimously approve of Umar's committee,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn though they often regard it as the second-best solution because Umar reputedly did not know whom to appoint directly.Шаблон:Sfn For instance, the Sunni al-Tabari (Шаблон:Died in) quotes Umar as saying that he would have designated his advisor Abu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah or Salim, the client of Abu Hudhayfa ibn Utba, both of whom predeceased the second caliph.Шаблон:Sfn Elsewhere, Umar would have selected Abu Ubayda, Mu'adh ibn Jabal, or Khalid ibn al-Walld,Шаблон:Sfn as reported in [[Al-Imama wa al-Siyasa|Шаблон:Transl]] and also by al-Tabari.Шаблон:Sfn Mahmoud M. Ayoub (Шаблон:Died in) suggests that Umar also did not want to be directly involved with this appointment,Шаблон:Sfn fearing dissension afterward.Шаблон:Sfn This fear is also noted by Husain M. Jafri (Шаблон:Died in).Шаблон:Sfn

Members

Umar nominated six men to this committee in most sources,Шаблон:Sfn all from the Muhajirun (early Meccan converts).Шаблон:Sfn The committee consisted of Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law Ali ibn Abi Talib, Muhammad's son-in-law Uthman ibn Affan, Uthman's brother-in-law and Umar's key advisor Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf, Ibn Awf's cousin Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas, Ali's cousin Zubayr ibn al-Awwam, and Talha ibn Ubaydullah.Шаблон:Sfn

A few sources add to this list Sa'id ibn Zayd, a companion of Muhammad,Шаблон:Sfn while a report by al-Tabari says Ibn Zayd was excluded because of his kinship with Umar, who reputedly did not want hereditary succession.Шаблон:Sfn On the other hand, some sources do not include Sa'd in the committee.Шаблон:Sfn Most sources also say that Talha arrived in Medina after the committee had reached its final decision and was absent from the proceedings.Шаблон:Sfn Sa'd formally acted as his proxy by some accounts.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The Sunni historian Ibn Sa'd (Шаблон:Died in) and some other Sunni sources also list Umar's son Abd Allah in the capacity of an advisor to the committee.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Alternatively, the Sunni Шаблон:Transl reports that Hasan ibn Ali served as a witness in the committee.Шаблон:Sfn

Configuration

Jafri believes that Umar did not consult the Muslim community before appointing this committee,Шаблон:Sfn while Patricia Crone (Шаблон:Died in) says that this matter is unclear in most sources except the Sunni al-Jahiz (Шаблон:Died in), according to whom Umar chose the committee members with help from early Muslims.Шаблон:Sfn Early Sunni sources defend the configuration of the committee,Шаблон:Sfn quoting Umar as saying that these were the best or the most entitled to the caliphate or those over whom the community would split.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

Uthman

The aging Uthman was a wealthy merchant from the powerful Banu Umayyad clan of the Quraysh. He nevertheless lacked leadership or military experience,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn unlike the rest of the committee.Шаблон:Sfn Not much is known about him during the reigns of Abu Bakr and Umar, and some have thus found it peculiar that Uthman was nominated.Шаблон:Sfn An early convert and Muhammad's son-in-law, Wilferd MadelungШаблон:Sfn and Sean AnthonyШаблон:Sfn suggest that Umar nominated Uthman as the only available strong counter-candidate to Ali, the much youngerШаблон:Sfn figurehead of Muhammad's clan, the Banu Hashim. If Uthman had not been nominated, observes Madelung, the Umayyads would have inevitably supported their distant relative Ali in the committee.Шаблон:Sfn While all nominees belonged to the Quraysh, the rest were from obscure clans, unlike Ali and Uthman.Шаблон:Sfn

Umar's views

Umar is shown in early Sunni sources as concerned that the disagreements in the committee would split the community,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and he reportedly warned Ali, Uthman,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and possibly also Ibn Awf about favoring their kin if they are elected. On this basis, Madelung suggests that Umar considered these three as the serious contenders for the caliphate in the committee.Шаблон:Sfn Among these three, Madelung suggests that Ibn Awf and Ali were Umar's most and least preferred candidates, respectively.Шаблон:Sfn Alternatively, Jafri and Ayoub consider it likely that Umar saw Ali and Uthman as the strongest candidates.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Umar also remarked elsewhere about the "foolishness" (Шаблон:Transliteration) of Ali,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn but nevertheless considered him worthy of the caliphate and predicted the nepotism of Uthman. Madelung is confident that this Sunni account is fabricated,Шаблон:Sfn which is also what Ayoub suggests.Шаблон:Sfn

Some early reports indicate that Umar vocally opposed the combination of the prophethood and the caliphate in the Banu Hashim,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and he thus prevented Muhammad from dictating his will on his deathbed,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn possibly fearing that he might expressly designate Ali as his successor.Шаблон:Sfn In this vein, Farhad Daftary believes that Ali was deliberately excluded from any position of importance during the caliphates of Umar and his predecessor,Шаблон:Sfn while Anthony regards Ali's disenfranchisement as self-imposed and a sign of his disapproval of the first two caliphs,Шаблон:Sfn even though he offered his (at times critical) advice to the caliphs.Шаблон:Sfn Considering all this, Jafri suggests that Umar nevertheless included Ali in the committee because of his high political standing, which made it impossible for Umar to exclude Ali.Шаблон:Sfn Ayoub extends this attitude of Umar to other government posts,Шаблон:Sfn basing his conclusion on a report by al-Mas'udi (Шаблон:Died in) in which the caliph hesitated to install the Hashemite Ibn Abbas (Шаблон:Died in) as the governor of Homs, saying that Muhammad had not given the Banu Hashim any share in the power.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

Rules

The committee was reportedly threatened with death to reach an agreement in three days,Шаблон:Sfn possibly reflecting an anxiety to avoid civil unrest and discord,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn something that later became the anathema to Sunni Islam.Шаблон:Sfn Umar also stipulated some rules for the committee,Шаблон:Sfn who were to meet in closed caucus to prevent outside influence, according to some reports by al-Tabari.Шаблон:Sfn Other reports, including one by al-Tabari,Шаблон:Sfn indicate that the Meccan and Medinan leaders and the garrison commanders lobbied Ibn Awf.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Another report by the Mu'tazilite Ibn Abi'l-Hadid (Шаблон:Died in) describes how Ibn Awf solicited advice from the public during the deliberations.Шаблон:Sfn The Ansari Abu Talha and his men were reportedly ordered by Umar to stand guard and enforce these rules:Шаблон:Sfn

Criticism

Ansar

The Ansar (early Medinan converts) were absent from this committee, either because of their pro-Ali sympathies at the Saqifa after Muhammad's death in 632, as suggested by Jafri and Abbas,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn or to keep the caliphate within the Quraysh, as implied by others.Шаблон:Sfn Whatever the reason, the absence of the Ansar is believed to have helped Uthman defeat Ali.Шаблон:Sfn Some contemporary authors have criticized Umar's exclusion of the Ansar and others from decision making.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

Voting bloc

Sa'd was inclined to support his cousin Ibn Awf, who was in turn likely to align himself with his brother-in-law, Uthman.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn This voting bloc of three would have formed the majority within the committee if Talha was absent and Sa'd thus cast two votes. Ibn Awf was given the tie-breaker and this voting bloc would have therefore dictated the outcome even if Talha was present during the deliberations.Шаблон:Sfn That the arrangement of the committee blocked the chances of Ali is also the view of Ayoub, who adds that Umar might have done so unknowingly.Шаблон:Sfn Jafri disagrees, saying that Umar meant to block Ali but could have not simply excluded him from the proceedings.Шаблон:Sfn

Ali's grievances

Possibly with the same calculations, Ali is shown as reluctant in the version of the events in which Ibn Awf proposed to cast the deciding vote in return for giving up his claims to the caliphate.Шаблон:Sfn Ali later referred to this voting bloc, complaining that the committee was stacked against him,Шаблон:Sfn as reported by the Sunni al-Baladhuri (Шаблон:Died in) and al-Tabari, among others,Шаблон:Sfn and also in the Shia Nahj al-balagha.Шаблон:Sfn Jafri suggests that Umar deliberately blocked the chances of Ali by granting the chairmanship of the committee to Ibn Awf, possibly fearing discord and civil unrest.Шаблон:Sfn In Jafri's view, the inclusion of Ali in the committee simultaneously recognized his claims,Шаблон:Sfn blocked his chances,Шаблон:Sfn and removed his freedom to independently seek the caliphate.Шаблон:Sfn The last item is a reference to an exchange to this effect between Ali and Muhammad's uncle Abbas,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn reported by al-Baladhuri and al-Tabari.Шаблон:Sfn

Coercion

Perhaps aware of his minority position within the committee,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn a reluctant Ali was compelled to participate in the committee, threatened by fear of arms, according to some reports by al-Baladhuri and al-Tabari.Шаблон:Sfn Alternatively, Ayoub surmises that Ali participated in the committee to save the community from dissension, even though he was aware that the committee was biased towards Uthman.Шаблон:Sfn When asked why he accepted the offer by al-Ma'mun (Шаблон:Reign) to be his heir apparent, the Shia Imam Ali al-Rida (Шаблон:Died in) is reported to have responded, "The same thing which forced my grandfather the Commander of the Faithful [Ali] to join the arbitration council [assembled by Umar]." This "same thing" might have been coercion based on another statement by al-Rida, "I was also forced to accept (the succession to the throne) even though I did not like to. I unwillingly accepted it when I was about to be killed," as reported in the Shia source Uyun akhbar al-Rida.Шаблон:Sfn

Deliberations

The candidates could not reach an agreement and the decision was soon in the hands of Ibn Awf, who had the deciding vote,Шаблон:Sfn and ultimately played a key role in the accession of his brother-in-law, Uthman.Шаблон:Sfn A report by al-Tabari reads that Ali initially objected to this arrangement but relented when Ibn Awf swore to be impartial.Шаблон:Sfn Ibn Awf then reportedly asked each candidate privately whom they would vote for if they were out of the race.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn In that case, Uthman said he would support Ali, while Ali, Sa'd, and Zubayr supported Uthman.Шаблон:Sfn Keaney finds it odd that Ali supported Uthman in this report, noting that the former thought the committee was stacked against him.Шаблон:Sfn Some reports by al-Tabari suggest that Sa'd and Zubayr did not press their own or Talha's claims and thus the choice soon narrowed down to Uthman and Ali.Шаблон:Sfn Alternatively, Ibn Ishaq (Шаблон:Died in) and al-Tabari include reports in which Talha was present and withdrew in favor of Uthman, Zubayr for Ali, and Sa'd for Ibn Awf.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn This account evidently contradicts the version in which Ibn Awf has the deciding vote.Шаблон:Sfn

Ali

By some accounts, Ali successfully appealed to Zubayr and Sa'd, and the two reportedly changed sides to Ali,Шаблон:Sfn but this would have given Ali the majority if Talha was still away and Sa'd thus had two votes.Шаблон:Sfn Madelung mentions this account about Sa'd but calls it "soft support at best," suggesting that "Ali had virtually no support" in the committee.Шаблон:Sfn Madelung and Jafri also believe that Zubayr supported Uthman, even though the former had earlier advocated for Ali against Abu Bakr after Muhammad's death.Шаблон:Sfn Despite his family ties with Ali, Jafri suggests, Zubayr this time withheld his support from the pious Ali with an eye on the financial opportunities that had opened up after the conquests of the Byzantine and Persian empires. He observes that Zubayr, Talha, Sa'd, and Ibn Awf all accumulated tremendous wealth under Uthman.Шаблон:Sfn

External influence

Ibn Awf also consulted the notable figures from Mecca, Medina, and the garrison towns, who were present in Medina.Шаблон:Sfn In particular, the Quraysh elite strongly supported Uthman, writes Madelung.Шаблон:Sfn The Makhzumite leader Abd Allah ibn Abi Rabi'a of the Quraysh reportedly warned Ibn Awf, "If you pledge allegiance to Ali, we shall hear and disobey, but if you pledge allegiance to Uthman, we shall hear and obey. So fear God, Ibn Awf."Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Ali was vocal about the divine and exclusive right of Muhammad's descendants to leadership,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn which would have jeopardized the future ambitions of other Qurayshites for leadership.Шаблон:Sfn

Decision

The most common tradition here is that Ibn Awf publicly offered the caliphate to Ali on two conditions: First, he should follow the Quran and the Sunna (Muhammad's precedent), and second, he should follow the example of the first two caliphs, namely, Abu Bakr and Umar. Ali accepted the first condition but declined the second one, adding that he would rely only on his judgment in the absence of any precedent from the Quran and the Sunna. Ibn Awf then presented the same conditions to Uthman who readily accepted them.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn This is also the version preferred by Mavani,Шаблон:Sfn Kennedy,Шаблон:Sfn Afsaruddin,Шаблон:Sfn Shaban,Шаблон:Sfn Shah-Kazemi,Шаблон:Sfn and Aslan.Шаблон:Sfn Alternatively, Crone and Keaney present another (Sunni) version in which Ali replies that he would follow Abu Bakr and Umar to the best of his ability, whereas Uthman simply answered affirmatively and received the mandate from Ibn Awf.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn This second account suggests a clear preference for Uthman by Ibn Awf.Шаблон:Sfn

At any rate, Ibn Awf then pledged his allegiance to Uthman as the next caliph and everyone else reportedly followed suit.Шаблон:Sfn Even though Ali did not seriously challenged it,Шаблон:Sfn the appointment of Uthman was not received well by some quarters of the Muslim community and likely contributed toward the first civil war (Шаблон:Transliteration).Шаблон:Sfn Uthman's reign as the third caliph was marked with nepotismШаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and departure from Islamic piety.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn He was assassinated by discontented rebels in his residence in 656.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

Reaction of Ali

Ali opposed the decision of the committee,Шаблон:Sfn and objected to what he viewed as Ibn Awf's partiality,Шаблон:Sfn but reportedly did not challenge the outcome.Шаблон:Sfn There are contradictory Sunni accounts about the reaction of Ali to the appointment of Uthman though they all end with his pledge to the new caliph. The ninth-century sources of Keaney are thus willing to include the disagreements between the companions but present them and the community united behind the new caliph in the end.Шаблон:Sfn As the reverence for companions gradually became a Sunni dogma,Шаблон:Sfn such reports were later dismissed as pro-Alid and largely censored by Sunni authors,Шаблон:Sfn even though the authors of these accounts reject the Shia claims and support their Abbasid caliphs.Шаблон:Sfn

The Shia Nahj al-balagha reports that Ali agreed to go along with the committee's decision "so long as the affairs of [the] Muslims remain intact and there is no oppression in it save on myself."Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Reza Shah-Kazemi interprets this statement as Ali's tacit approval of the rules of Abu Bakr and Umar, adding that he nevertheless viewed himself as the rightful successor to Muhammad,Шаблон:Sfn and gave up his claims to the caliphate for the unity of Islam.Шаблон:Sfn In contrast, Hamid Mavani and Maria M. Dakake suggest that Ali viewed the succession of Abu Bakr as a digression which turned into a full-blown deviation with the rebellion of Mu'awiya during his own caliphate.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn This is also the Shia view, as represented by the Shia jurist Ruhollah Khomeini (Шаблон:Died in).Шаблон:Sfn Ali's refusal to follow the precedent of the first two caliphs also became the hallmark of Shia jurisprudence and led to the later development of their independent schools of law.Шаблон:Sfn

Status quo

Laura Veccia Vaglieri (Шаблон:Died in) suggests that the caliphate of Ali would have endangered certain well-established interests because he did not view Abu Bakr and Umar as entirely aligned with the Quran and the Sunna.Шаблон:Sfn Aslan has a similar opinion,Шаблон:Sfn while McHugo adds that Ali would have opened the leadership to the Ansar and others, thus ending the privileged status of the Quraysh.Шаблон:Sfn Along these lines, Anthony views Ali's refusal to follow the first two caliphs as evidence of his censure of their rule.Шаблон:Sfn Shaban notes that Ali's refusal made him a rallying point for the opposition movement, adding that the wealthy Uthman was possibly selected to guard the Meccan interests.Шаблон:Sfn Likewise, Kennedy suggests that Ali refused to follow the precedent of Abu Bakr and Umar because he might have realized that the Quraysh's domination was dividing the community and wished to open the leadership for other groups, especially the Ansar, with whom he had links. Uthman, in contrast, was a wealthy Meccan merchant with good ties with the Quraysh elite.Шаблон:Sfn Some contemporary authors go further, suggesting that Ibn Awf's question was designed to weed out Ali, as he was well aware of Ali's disagreements with the past two caliphs and that he would have inevitably rejected the second condition.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn For Afsaruddin, however, the (Sunni) accounts of Uthman's appointment convey that the third caliph was expected at the time to follow Abu Bakr and Umar.Шаблон:Sfn

Motivations of Ibn Awf

Uthman is often portrayed as a weak-minded man,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and Jafri suggests that Ibn Awf and the committee (except Ali) hoped that he would serve their interests, as representatives of the Quraysh aristocracy.Шаблон:Sfn Keaney and Ayoub include a report by al-Tabari that quotes Ali as saying, "You [Ibn Awf] have appointed Uthman so that the rule will come back to you."Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The view of Wellhausen is similar. Still, Madelung disagrees with it, saying that Uthman was actually put forward because he was the only available strong counter-candidate to Ali.Шаблон:Sfn His view is echoed by McHugo.Шаблон:Sfn

Historicity

The earliest sources are Шаблон:Transliteration accounts written more than a century after Uthman, all of which are polemical,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn written also with the benefit of hindsight. That is, the authors knew about Uthman's nepotism, Ali's caliphate, the civil war, and the Umayyad and the Abbasid dynasties.Шаблон:Sfn Cateani (Шаблон:Died in) thus rejects Umar's committee altogether as a later fabrication to justify the prevailing practice of the Abbasids,Шаблон:Sfn whereas Jafri,Шаблон:Sfn Madelung,Шаблон:Sfn and KeaneyШаблон:Sfn defend the credibility of the accounts in this regard.

Jafri further argues that the accounts of Umar's committee are essentially authentic, adding that the accounts of the early historians al-Baladhuri, al-Ya'qubi (Шаблон:Died in), al-Tabari, and al-Mas'udi are similar to each other and to that of the much earlier Ibn Ishaq (Шаблон:Died in).Шаблон:Sfn Nevertheless, he admits that it is difficult to ascertain the committee's deliberations.Шаблон:Sfn Alternatively, Madelung believes that the related historical accounts are partly contradictory and fictional, though he contends that some conclusions can be made from them with reasonable certainty.Шаблон:Sfn

See also

References

Citations

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